Introduction to Linux

Introduction to the Linux Shell

1. The Shell

Overview

• Traditional computers: Graphical User Interface (GUI)
  • include modern Linux distros
• Remote Linux cluster of computers: Command-Line Interface (CLI)
  • Great for automation
  • Familiarity with CLI and shell scripting is essential
• Linux CLI: The Shell
  • Is a program where users can type commands
  • Tasks that are often managed by a mouse click are now carried out by these commands and their respective options (flags)
• Shell scripting:
  • Sequence of commands can be combined into a script to automate the workflow.
• This is an example comparing the contents of a directory between a GUI view (left) and a CLI view (right).
  • Both display contents of a home directory on a Windows Kernel Subsystem for Linux (Ubuntu distro)

example Hands-on: preparing shell and data

• SSH into a Linux environment
• Run the following commands to prepare the environment.

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wget --no-check-certificate https://www.cs.wcupa.edu/lngo/data/shell-lesson-data.zip
unzip shell-lesson-data.zip
 

2. Files and Directories

Overview

• File System: an Operating System component responsible for managing files and directories.
• Perspective:
  • On a GUI, you click to move from one place to another, so you are outside the file system space looking in.
  • On a CLI, you need to explicitly provide direction (path) for the command to know with which file/directory it is supposed to interact. The perspective is more inside the file system space.
• Key commands:
  • pwd: path of working (current) directory
  • ls: listing
  • cd: change directory
• Key definition:

Hands-on: pwd, ls, cd

• pwd returns the absolute path to the current working directory (i.e.: where you are when you are in the terminal).

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pwd
 

• ls returns the list of current files and directories in the target directory.

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ls /
 

• There are many options available for different commands. To view the documentation, run the followings:
  • As a sys admin, you have to become very good at reading documentation!

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ls --help
 

• Detailed manual can be viewed using the following command:
  • Use the Space key to move down page by page
  • How do you quit?

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man ls
 

question Challenge: exploring more ls flags

• You can also use two options at the same time. What does the command ls do when used with the -l option? What about if you use both the -l and the -h option?
• Some of its output is about properties that we do not cover in this lesson (such as file permissions and ownership), but the rest should be useful nevertheless.

Solution

• The -l option makes ls use a long listing format, showing not only the file/directory names but also additional information, such as the file size and the time of its last modification.
• If you use both the -h option and the -l option, this makes the file size human readable, i.e. displaying something like 5.3K instead of 5369.

question Challenge: Listing in reverse chronological order

• By default, ls lists the contents of a directory in alphabetical order by name. The command ls -t lists items by time of last change instead of alphabetically. The command ls -r lists the contents of a directory in reverse order.
• Which file is displayed last when you combine the -t and -r options? Hint: You may need to use the -l option to see the last changed dates.

Solution

The most recently changed file is listed last when using -rt. This can be very useful for finding your most recent edits or checking to see if a new output file was written.

• Run ls by itself will list the contents of the current directory.

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ls
 

• cd allows users to change the current directory (outcome of pwd) to the target directory.
  • Run man cd or cd --help to read the documentation for cd.
  • The generate syntax for cd is cd DESTINATION with DESTINATION can either be absolute or relative paths or special paths.
• Change to root directory and view contents of root:

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cd /
ls 
 

• Special paths:
  • ~: home direcrory
  • .: current directory
  • ..: a directory that is one level above the current directory
• Change to your home directory using either the special paths or /home/YOURUSERNAME (YOURUSERNAME: your username on molly)
• Check the content of your home directory to confirm that you have the shell-lesson-data directory.
• Change into shell-lesson-data directory and view the contents of this directory

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cd ~
ls
cd shell-lesson-data
ls 
 

question Challenge: ls Reading comprehension

• Using the filesystem diagram below.
• If pwd displays /Users/backup and -r tells ls to display things in reverse order, what command(s) will result in the following output:

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pnas_sub/ pnas_final/ original/
 

1. ls pwd
2. ls -r -F
3. ls -r -F /Users/backup

Solution

1. No: pwd is not the name of a directory.
2. Yes: ls without directory argument lists files and directories in the current directory.
3. Yes: uses the absolute path explicitly.

General syntax of a shell command

• ls is the command, with an option -F and an argument /.
• Option:
  • either start with a single dash (-) or two dashes (--),
  • change the behavior of a command.
  • can be referred to as either switches or flags.
• Arguments tell the command what to operate on (e.g. files and directories).
• Sometimes options and arguments are referred to as parameters.
  • The shell is in fact just a process/function and these options and arguments are being passed as parameters to the shell’s function that is responsible for executing the command.
• A command can be called with more than one option and more than one argument, but a command doesn’t always require an argument or an option.
• Each part is separated by spaces: if you omit the space between ls and -F the shell will look for a command called ls-F, which doesn’t exist.
• Capitalization can be important.
  • ls -s will display the size of files and directories alongside the names
  • ls -S will sort the files and directories by size

Hands-on: explore data

• Check where you are, change back to your home directory, then navigate to exercise-data.

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pwd
cd ~
cd shell-lesson-data
cd exercise-data/writing
ls -F
 

3. Files and Directories: creation

Creating directories: mkdir

• Create a directory called thesis, and check for its existence.
  • Also check that there is nothing inside the newly created directory.

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mkdir thesis
ls -F
 

question Challenge: creating multiple directories

• What is the role of the -p flag in the following commands:

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mkdir ../project/data 
ls -F ../project
mkdir -p ../project/data
mkdir -p ../project/report ../project/results
ls -F ../project
 

-p allows the creation of all directories on the specified path, regardless whether any directory on that path exists.

• Important for directory and file names in Linux!!!
  • Do not use spaces/special characters in file and directory names.
  • Use -, _, and . for annotation, but do not begin the names with them.

Creating files: nano (or vim)

• Linux terminal environment is text-only, hence its editors are text only as well.
  • nano
  • vim
  • emacs.
• Fun read: One does not simply exist vim
• We are using nano (lowest learning curve).
• Create a file named draft.txt inside thesis.
  • Type in the contents shown in the screenshot.

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pwd
ls
cd thesis
nano draft.txt
 

• To save the text, you need to press Ctrl + O keys:
  • Press and hold Ctrl then press O.
  • You will be asked whether to keep the same file name or to edit the name. Press Enter to confirm.
• To quit nano, press Ctrl + X.
  • If you have not saved the text before, nano will ask if you want to save the file first and confirm the name with Y or N.

4. Files and Directories: moving, copying, and deleting

Moving files and directories: mv

• mv is short for move. It will move a file/directory from one location to another.

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cd ~/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/writing
ls thesis
mv thesis/draft.txt thesis/quotes.txt
ls thesis
mv thesis/quotes.txt .
ls thesis
ls 
 

question Challenge: Moving files to a new folder

• After running the following commands, Jamie realizes that she put the files sucrose.dat and maltose.dat into the wrong folder. The files should have been placed in the raw folder.

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ls -F
analyzed/ raw/
ls -F analyzed
fructose.dat glucose.dat maltose.dat sucrose.dat
cd analyzed
 

• Fill in the blanks to move these files to the raw folder:

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mv sucrose.data maltose.data ____/_____
 

Solution

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mv sucrose.data maltose.data ../raw
 

Copying files and directories: cp

• cp stands for copy. It copies a file or directory to a new location, possibly with a new name.

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cp quotes.txt thesis/quotations.txt
ls quotes.txt thesis/quotations.txt
cp -r thesis thesis_backup
ls thesis thesis_backup
 

question Challenge: Renaming files

• Suppose that you created a plain-text file in your current directory to contain a list of the statistical tests you will need to do to analyze your data, and named it: statstics.txt
• After creating and saving this file you realize you misspelled the filename! You want to correct the mistake, which of the following commands could you use to do so?

1. cp statstics.txt statistics.txt
2. mv statstics.txt statistics.txt
3. mv statstics.txt .
4. cp statstics.txt .

Solution

1. No. While this would create a file with the correct name, the incorrectly named file still exists in the directory and would need to be deleted.
2. Yes, this would work to rename the file.
3. No, the period(.) indicates where to move the file, but does not provide a new file name; identical file names cannot be created.
4. No, the period(.) indicates where to copy the file, but does not provide a new file name; identical file names cannot be created.

question Challenge: Moving and copying

• What is the output of the last ls command in the sequence shown below?

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pwd
/home/rammy/data
ls
proteins.dat
mkdir recombined
mv proteins.dat recombined/
cp recombined/proteins.dat ../proteins-saved.dat
ls
 

1. proteins-saved.dat recombined
2. recombined
3. proteins.dat recombined
4. proteins-saved.dat

Solution

1. No, proteins-saved.dat is located at /home/rammy/
2. Yes
3. proteins.dat is located at /home/rammy/data/recombined
4. No, proteins-saved.dat is located at /home/rammy/

Removing files and directories: rm

• Returning to the shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/writing directory, let’s tidy up this directory by removing the quotes.txt file we created.
• The command we’ll use for this is rm (short for ‘remove’):

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cd ~/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/writing
ls 
rm quotes.txt
ls quotes.txt
rm thesis
rm -r thesis
 

5. Wildcards

Wildcards

• * is a wildcard, which matches zero or more characters.
  • Inside shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/proteins directory:
    • *.pdb matches ethane.pdb, propane.pdb, and every file that ends with ‘.pdb’.
    • p*.pdb only matches pentane.pdb and propane.pdb, because the ‘p’ at the front only matches filenames that begin with the letter ‘p’.
• ? is also a wildcard, but it matches exactly one character. So
  • ?ethane.pdb would match methane.pdb
  • *ethane.pdb matches both ethane.pdb, and methane.pdb.
• Wildcards can be used in combination with each other
  • ???ane.pdb matches three characters followed by ane.pdb.
  • cubane.pdb, ethane.pdb, octane.pdb.
• When the shell sees a wildcard, it expands the wildcard to create a list of matching filenames before running the command that was asked for. It is the shell, not the other programs, that deals with expanding wildcards.
• Change into shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/proteins and try the following commands

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ls *t*ane.pdb
ls *t?ne.*
ls *t??ne.pdb
ls ethane.*
 

question Challenge: more on wildcards

Sam has a directory containing calibration data, datasets, and descriptions of the datasets:

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.
├── 2015-10-23-calibration.txt
├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt
├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt
├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt
├── 2015-10-26-calibration.txt
├── 2015-10-26-dataset1.txt
├── 2015-10-26-dataset2.txt
├── 2015-10-26-dataset_overview.txt
├── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt
├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt
├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt
├── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt
├── backup
│   ├── calibration
│   └── datasets
└── send_to_bob
    ├── all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd
    └── all_november_files
 

Before heading off to another field trip, Sam wants to back up her data and send datasets created the 23rd of any month to Bob. Sam uses the following commands to get the job done:

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cp *dataset* backup/datasets
cp ____calibration____ backup/calibration
cp 2015-____-____ send_to_bob/all_november_files/
cp ____ send_to_bob/all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd/
 

Help Sam by filling in the blanks.

The resulting directory structure should look like this

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.
├── 2015-10-23-calibration.txt
├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt
├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt
├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt
├── 2015-10-26-calibration.txt
├── 2015-10-26-dataset1.txt
├── 2015-10-26-dataset2.txt
├── 2015-10-26-dataset_overview.txt
├── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt
├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt
├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt
├── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt
├── backup
│   ├── calibration
│   │   ├── 2015-10-23-calibration.txt
│   │   ├── 2015-10-26-calibration.txt
│   │   └── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt
│   └── datasets
│       ├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt
│       ├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt
│       ├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt
│       ├── 2015-10-26-dataset1.txt
│       ├── 2015-10-26-dataset2.txt
│       ├── 2015-10-26-dataset_overview.txt
│       ├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt
│       ├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt
│       └── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt
└── send_to_bob
    ├── all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd
    │   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt
    │   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt
    │   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt
    │   ├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt
    │   ├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt
    │   └── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt
    └── all_november_files
        ├── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt
        ├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt
        ├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt
        └── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt
 

Solution

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cp *calibration.txt backup/calibration
cp 2015-11-* send_to_bob/all_november_files/
cp *-23-dataset* send_to_bob/all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd/